The current study examines memes from a linguistic and cultural perspective, focusing on memes with English and Arabic captions obtained from Facebook and Instagram. It posits that memes are an effective communication tool, facilitating interaction between meme creators and the internet community. The study adopts Halliday’s (1975) socio-semiotic theory to explore the linguistic and cultural dimensions of memes, particularly their role as a mode of communication (e.g., text and images) expressing various speech registers (e.g., humor and satire). This research aims to investigate the socio-semiotics behind memes’ complex verbal and visual structures and to address the gap in understanding how the meaning of memes is created and communicated using Halliday’s (1975) socio-semiotic framework.

The term "meme" was first introduced by Richard Dawkins (1976) in his book The Selfish Gene, drawing an analogy between the biological concept of a gene and the replication and transmission of cultural phenomena. Dawkins suggested that memes, like genes, spread through copying and imitation, acting as cultural units transmitted among individuals via various communication mediums. Memes hold significance as they provide a creative way for internet culture to combine humor and messages (Wang & Wang, 2015). Consequently, digital memes, which vary across contexts, can be effectively analyzed through the lens of social semiotics.

Semiotics, as the study of sign systems, offers valuable insights into memes beyond other approaches. Unlike linguistics, semiotics focuses on the signification and communication of both intentional and unintentional meanings. Derived from the Ancient Greek term semeion (sign), semiotics explores the relationship between signs and meaning (Saussure, 1916). The foundation of semiotics can be traced back to early thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. However, Ferdinand de Saussure (1916) is regarded as the father of semiology, laying the groundwork for the field by defining the relationship between the signifier (the physical form of the sign, such as sounds, letters, or gestures) and the signified (the concept or image it represents). The connection between these two elements is referred to as "signification" (Sebeok, 2001). Saussure described semiotics as "a science that studies the life of signs within society"(Saussure, 1916). Social semiotics, the focus of this study, builds upon Saussure’s concepts, examining the social relations and power dynamics that shape communication codes.

Previous studies have highlighted memes’ critical role as a communication form on social media, emphasizing the embedded meanings they convey. These studies often analyze memes using semiotic frameworks, such as Barthes’ theory of semiotics, which interprets memes as signs with culturally specific meanings (Kavitha, 2018; Bardakis, 2021; Lestari, Duwila, & Probowati, 2022). Others employ cognitive semiotics to show how memes consist of text superimposed on images, forming part of image macros (Zenner & Geeraerts, 2018). Some researchers conduct meta-semiotic analyses, uncovering the ideological functions of visual images and the cultural understanding of respondents (Octavita & Zaimar, 2019; Hakoköngäs, Halmesvaara, & Sakki, 2020; Alcantara & Yocampo, 2022). However, the social justification behind internet memes as a communication code remains underexplored. This study addresses this gap by applying Halliday’s (1975) socio-semiotic theory to analyze how memes convey meaning through their verbal and visual structures.

Michael Halliday (1975) introduced the concept of “social semiotics” in his book Language as Social Semiotic, emphasizing the growing importance of pictorial images in communication. Halliday’s framework provides a robust foundation for analyzing memes as a form of communication that simplifies interaction between creators and internet users. Building on this theory, the present study examines memes as a medium of communication that expresses humor and satire in English and Arabic captions sourced from Facebook and Instagram.

The study seeks to answer the following research questions:

Memes

According to Kavitha (2018), memes do not have a singular form; they can be images, emails, or even video files. However, most memes are images of people or animals captioned with humorous sayings. The term "meme" was first introduced by Richard Dawkins to explain the spread of cultural information, with internet memes being a subset of this broader concept specific to the culture and environment of the internet. Kavitha (2018: 220) highlights that "image macros" are one of the most common forms of internet memes. Kariko (2013) emphasizes that internet users generate meanings in memes based on a theme or image, often adding humor or fun. This process requires creativity in utilizing symbols, words, and contexts to convey meaning.

Shifman (2013, p. 363) states, “The word meme is derived from the Greek mimema, signifying something which is imitated.” Similarly, Taecharungroj and Nueangjamnong (2015) describe memes as tools for generating laughter, and representing humor on the internet and social media. Shifman (2014: 41) further refines the definition, describing memes as “a group of digital items sharing common characteristics of content, form, and/or stance that (a) were created with some awareness of each other; and (b) were circulated, imitated, and/or transformed via the internet by multiple users.”

Grundlingh (2017, p. 4) describes memes as a popular method of online communication, often used by internet users to interact on social networking sites and forums. Grundlingh notes that “the interpretation of a meme can therefore be seen as a process of signification [...] both semiotics and pragmatics assist in contributing to a thorough understanding of how memes are used to communicate.” Pauliks (2020, p. 46) adds that when hearing the word “meme,” most people think of amusing images and videos found on the internet.

Ibnu Sulhar (2016), in his study Internet Meme Analysis: Interpretive Semiotic Analysis on ‘Scumbag Steve,’ examined the denotations and connotations of “Scumbag Steve” memes using Barthes’ semiology theory. Sulhar analyzed these memes in the context of modern myths, emphasizing their use in communication beyond entertainment. Similarly, Made Nunik Sayani (2013), in Semiotic Analysis of Memes in 9gag.com, analyzed the “Poker Face” and “Okay” memes through Saussure’s and Chandler’s semiotic theories. Sayani’s research focused on the signifiers and signifieds of the memes, illustrating how posts with memes have varied functions and meanings depending on their cultural and linguistic contexts.

Socio-Cultural Analysis of Memes

Gunawat and Kapoor (2023) explored people’s awareness of meme culture and the information they share about cultural memes. Using a quantitative methodology and an online survey, the study concluded that memes significantly contribute to providing different perspectives on the world and fostering discussions among people.

Dwivedi (2023) examined the impact of social media memes on cross-cultural communication, emphasizing how memes have transformed communication across cultures and facilitated globalization through social media. The study found that 50% of people worldwide are influenced by internet memes.

Wang (2024) analyzed the rise and development of "network terrier culture" in the context of media integration. Wang’s research highlights the emergence of meme culture as a social phenomenon, exploring its impacts and its role as a cultural indicator. The study provides insights into managing and utilizing language as a cultural phenomenon.

Mukhtar et al. (2024) examined the sociological characteristics of memes in relation to their occurrence on online platforms. The researchers collected and analyzed memes based on “themes, linguistic elements, and cultural references” (p. 1443) from various internet sources. The findings revealed that memes reflect societal trends, generational differences, and cultural dynamics. According to Mukhtar et al. (2024), memes serve as “potent vehicles for social connection, self-expression, and cultural commentary within digital communities” (p. 1443).

Linguistic and Semiotic Analysis of Memes

Kavitha (2018) conducted a study titled “A Study of Memes Using Semiotics” to analyze internet memes using a qualitative approach. The samples were taken from the Whatsapp Kalakkal page of Tamil The Hindu newspaper. Only the image macro meme format was selected to identify the popular memes among digital users.

Thomas Bardakis (2021) explored Greek Internet memes in his study, “A Semiotic Approach to Greek Internet Memes During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Using a qualitative approach, Bardakis analyzed 15 memes related to COVID-19 and lockdowns, which were presented on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. The humorous memes were examined in the context of Greek culture, quarantine discourse, and pandemic realities. One notable finding was that these memes exaggerated the pandemic and lockdown realities to generate humor. Bardakis (2021, p. 42) stated that the memes “reflect the people’s weariness, psychological fatigue, and frustration at prolonging the government’s strict measures.”

In “Semiotics Study on Skripsi’s Memes,” Lestari et al. (2022) applied Roland Barthes’ semiotic theory to analyze memes addressing Skripsi’s writing challenges. The researchers used a qualitative approach to select five memes from Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, digital news media, and the web. Their analysis revealed that the memes communicated both denotative and connotative meanings, highlighting students’ difficulties with Skripsi’s writing.

Eline Zenner and Dirk Geeraerts (2024, p. 167) examined image macros, a subgenre of internet memes, through a cognitive-linguistic lens. They described internet memes as “all kinds of online objects that are copied and imitated, altered and modified, propagated and diffused by participants on the web.” Their study aimed to define image macros by capturing the interplay between conventionality and creativity while exploring the processing difficulties posed by traditional wordplay in image macros (ibid., 176). This research opened up new avenues for studying this often-overlooked yet highly popular subgenre of internet memes.

From these previous studies, it becomes evident that there is a shortage of research addressing the similarities and differences in how humor is expressed through memes on Facebook and Instagram. Additionally, the exploration of memes from both linguistic and cultural perspectives remains underdeveloped.

Data Collection and Processing

This study adopts a mixed-method approach to analyze the socio-semiotic features of English and Arabic memes shared on Facebook and Instagram. Quantitative analysis was conducted to identify linguistic and non-linguistic features in memes, providing a robust foundation for the analysis through Halliday’s (1975) social semiotics framework. Frequency analysis was also utilized to examine differences in linguistic features and other meme characteristics, albeit on a small-scale sample. Future research should compile larger corpora for frequency-based analysis to better understand socio-semiotic patterns in memes.

Data were randomly collected from Facebook and Instagram, focusing on humor memes in English and Arabic. The sample consisted of four subcategories: English Facebook memes, Arabic Facebook memes, English Instagram memes, and Arabic Instagram memes, with 15 memes in each category (a total of 60 memes). Memes were categorized into text memes, picture-text memes, video memes with spoken dialogue, and video memes with text but no spoken dialogue. Although the selection was random, it was systematic, as memes were chosen based on their popularity (likes) on the platforms, prioritizing the funniest ones.

To ensure validity and reliability, data were coded (see appendices). Memes were classified according to Halliday’s (1975) framework, beginning with an analysis of semiotic features of situations (non-linguistic features) and semantics (linguistic features).

The socio-semiotic interaction analysis included linguistic analysis of meme captions to identify various linguistic features. Subsequently, a semantic analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between captions and visual elements, determining whether images reinforced, contradicted, or added layers of meaning. Cultural references emerged from the interaction of language and images, enriching the contextual understanding. Additional semiotic features, such as font size, colors, capitalization, and punctuation, were examined for their impact on emphasis and tone.

Analyzing diverse meme formats (e.g., static images, GIFs, short videos) posed challenges due to their variability. The transient nature of memes, driven by real-time events and cultural shifts, further complicated sample collection and representation. Thus, the study is limited to the selected memes analyzed in this research.

Theoretical Foundation: Hallidyan (1975) Socio-Semiotic Theory

Social semiotics, a branch of semiotics, examines the meaning-making processes of signs and symbols. It draws from structuralist semiotics founded by Ferdinand de Saussure (1916). Halliday (1975) coined the term “social semiotics” to emphasize the interplay between language, context, and social structure in creating meaning. He argued against the conventional separation of language and society, advocating for an integrated approach that considers text, context, and social interaction.

Halliday viewed language as a culturally dependent system of signs that cannot be fully understood outside its social context. His socio-semiotic framework highlights systems of “meaning potential” shaped by cultural and social influences (Halliday, 1975, p. 269). This framework is central to the present study and is summarized in Table 1 (see appendices).

Memes Through the Lens of Semantics as Social Semiotics

This section discusses the results related to systematic functional linguistics, which is regarded as a feature of all languages. The orientation of such a property is considered functional and semantic rather than syntactic and formal. In other words, the functional-oriented approach to linguistics argues that language should be described based on the purpose that it serves rather than its syntactic and grammatical function. Accordingly, all languages should be explained through functions, namely, "the ideational, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions" (Halliday, 1975, p. 263). The following subsections present the results of each function, including its subtypes, based on Halliday's (1975) framework of Socio-Semiotic Theory:

Ideational

Following Halliday’s framework of socio-semiotic analysis, the researchers conducted a frequency analysis of the corpora collected from Facebook and Instagram. Each corpus comprised English and Arabic subsections representing various humor memes randomly collected from the respective social media platforms. Ideational, which denotes the broader social context within which the text operates, was analyzed alongside the subject matter and considered a specific manifestation within this context. In this case, the semantic feature of ideation was analyzed through the elements of semiotic structures of the situation, referred to as the field. Each sub-corpus contained a selection of memes contributing to the overall analysis. The findings revealed that these memes covered three themes: social commentary, relationships, and politics.

Memes Through the Lens of Situation as Social Semiotics

The representation of memes in this study aims to establish the semantic system of language “as a kind of symbol or a kind of symbolic system and share the same understanding of the essential characteristics of culture” (Long & He, 2021, p. 1269). In other words, the language system of memes is realized through the system of social context. The humor in memes has its own distinctive structures that align with the social purposes they fulfill within the culture in which they are used. Therefore, the context of the situation (i.e., register) is one of the most critical aspects influencing the linguistic realization of humor in memes.

The context of the situation comprises three main variables that fundamentally define the language choices that are made. These variables function collectively and are responsible for shaping the language features within the text. Accordingly, the semantic features of memes, exemplified as “ideational,” “interpersonal,” and “textual,” are described by Halliday (1975, p. 266) in terms of “three dimensions: the ongoing social activity, the role relationships involved, and the symbolic or rhetorical channel.” These dimensions are referred to, respectively, as "field," "tenor," and "mode."

This section presents the realization of each variable in the selected English and Arabic data from Facebook and Instagram memes. Due to space constraints in this study, only a few memes are analyzed as references for each discussed concept, which can be applied to other similar memes.

Field

The contextual concept of the field is reflected through the ideational metafunction, which implicates language in various social situations. Halliday (1978) defined the field as the topic or activity taking place. Based on this notion, memes in the four sub-corpora are classified into three main topics: social commentary, relationships, and politics.

To enhance the comprehensiveness of future analyses, it is recommended to expand the dataset by incorporating memes from additional social media platforms, such as Twitter and TikTok, through a cross-platform data collection approach. This would provide a broader understanding of meme usage across different digital environments. Further studies could also explore themes beyond humor, such as political satire and social activism, using thematic content analysis to investigate the linguistic and cultural expressions of diverse content types. Additionally, conducting longitudinal examinations would allow researchers to track and understand changes in the linguistic and cultural characteristics of memes over time, addressing societal shifts and their impact on semiotics. Applying alternative semiotic theories and frameworks, such as Peirce's triadic model (symbol, icon, index) or Barthes' theory of myth, could provide a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between text and visuals in memes. These approaches would enrich the analysis and offer a more detailed perspective on the dynamic nature of memes as a form of communication.

Acknowledgement Statement: The authors would like to thank to all participants including the funding authority of the Middle East University in Amman for supporting this research and the reviewers for providing comments in helping this manuscript to completion.

Conflicts of interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Authors' contribution statements: All authors contributed to the work. The first author, Juhaina Maan Al-Issawi worked on the analysis and writing the first draft of the paper, she also worked with the second author, Wajd Al-Ahmad, on the methodology and choosing the software. The third author, Nasaybah Awajan, worked on the resources. She also worked on writing the literature review along with Juhaina Al-Issawi, on writing the last draft of the paper.

Funding statements: This research received a financial support grant from Middle East University in Amman, Jordan.

Data availability statement: Data is available at request. Please contact the corresponding author for any additional information on data access or usage.

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