In-group and out-group perspectives A cross-cultural comparison of four countries
Abstract
As the interrelationships among countries are increasing in various social, political, educational, and commercial contexts, it would be beneficial to understand how people of different cultures perceive the links of human relationships and how they present different behaviors toward in-group and out-group individuals. By conducting questionnaire, the present study aims to explore the differences in in-group and out-group perceptions and behavioral patterns of private organization employees in South Korea, Japan, Canada, and the United States. Statistical analysis of the collected data yielded cultural differences of human relationships based on in-group and out-group distinctions. To obtain more generally applicable findings, however, further investigation should examine other factors such as age, geographical locations, education, and occupations.
Full text article
References
Aboud, F. E. (2003). The formation of in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice in young children: Are they distinct attitudes? Developmental Psychology, 39, 48-60.
Adams, B. N. (1999). Cross-cultural and U.S. kinship. In M. B. Sussman, S. K. Steinmetz., & G. W. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of marriage and the Family (2nd ed., pp. 77-91). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Asia Matters for America (2011). American students in South Korea. Retrieved from http://www.asiamattersforamerica.org/southkorea/data/students/americansabroad
Babbie, E. (2001). The practice of social research (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.
Balliet, D., Wu, J., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2014). Ingroup favoritism in cooperation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1556-1581.
Beamer, L. & Varner, I. (2001). Intercultural communication in the global workplace (2nd ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Befu, H. (1986). The social and cultural background of child development in Japan and the United States, In H. Stevenson, H. Azuma, & K, Hakuta (Eds.), Child development and education in Japan (pp. 13-27). New York: Freeman.
Bernstein, M. J., Sacco, D. F., Young, S. G., Hugenberg, K., & Cook, E. (2010). Being “in” with the in-crowd: The effects of social exclusion and inclusion are enhanced by the perceived essentialism of ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 999-1009.
Bettencourt, B. A., Dill, K. E., Greathouse, S. A., Charlton, K., & Mulholland, A. (1997). Evaluations of ingroup and outgroup members: The role of category-based expectancy violation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 244-275.
Billig, M., & Tajfel, H. (1973). Social categorization and similarity in intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 27-52.
Branscombe, N. R., Wann, D. L., Noel, J. G., & Coleman, J. (1993). In-group or out-group extremity: Importance of threatened social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 381-388.
Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 429-444.
Brewer, M. B. (2007). The importance of being we: Human nature and intergroup relations. American Psychologist, 62, 728-738.
Brewer, M. B., & Campbell, D. T. (1976). Ethnocentrism and intergroup attitudes: East African evidence. New York, NY: Wiley.
Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1, 185-216.
Chang, C. S., & Chang N. J. (1994). The Korean management system: Cultural, political, economic Foundations. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
Chen, G. & Starosta, W. J. (1998). Foundations of intercultural communication. Needham Height, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Cicirelli, V. (1994). Sibling relationships in cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 7-20.
Coon, H. M. & Kemmelmeier, M. (2001), Cultural orientations in the United States: (Re) examining differences among ethnic groups. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 32, 348-364.
Engle, R., Elahee, M., & Tatoglu, E. (2013). Antecedents of problem-solving cross-cultural negotiation style: Some preliminary evidence. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 18, 83-102.
Falk, E. B., Spunt, R. P., Lieberman, M. D. (2012). Ascribing beliefs to ingroup and outgroup political candidates: Neural correlates of perspective-taking, issue importance and days until the election. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 367, 731-743.
Gao, G., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Communicating effectively with the Chinese. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Government of Canada (2015a). Canada-Japan Relations. Retrieved from http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/japan-japon/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/index.aspx?lang=eng
Government of Canada (2015b). Canada-Korea Relations. Retrieved from http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/korea-coree/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/index.aspx?lang=eng
Grainger, R. J., & Miyamoto, T. (2003). Human values and HRM practice: The Japanese Shukko system. Journal of Human Values, 9, 105-115.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Henry, E. A., Bartholow, B. D., & Arndt, J. (2010). Death on the brain: Effects of mortality salience on the neural correlates of ingroup and outgroup categorization. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5, 77-87.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. (2001). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. In Gannon, M. (Ed.), Cultural metaphors: Readings, research translations, and commentary (pp. 31-50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hogg, M. A., & Reid, S. A. (2006). Social identity, self-categorization, and the communication of group norms. Communication Theory, 16, 7-30.
Holloway, S. D. (2010). Japanese women, parenting, and family life. Retrieved from Child Research Net website: http://www.childresearch.net/papers/parenting/2010_02.html
Horak, S., & Klein, A. (2016). Persistence of informal social networks in East Asia: Evidence from South Korea. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 33, 673-694.
Hui, C. H., & Villareal, M. J. (1989). Individualism-collectivism and psychological need: Their relationships in two cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20, 310-323.
Husted, B. W., & Allen, C. B. (2008). Toward a model of cross-cultural business ethics: The impact of individualism and collectivism on the ethical decision-making process. Journal of Business Ethics, 82, 293-305.
Husted, B. W., & Salazar, J. D. J. (2006). Taking Friedman seriously: Maximizing profits and social performance. Journal of Management Studies, 43, 75-91.
ICEF Monitor. (2016). Canada’s international student enrolment up 8%. Retrieved from http://monitor.icef.com/2016/11/canadas-international-student-enrolment-up-8/
Iwama, H. F. (1989). Japan’s group orientation in secondary schools. In J. J. Shields, Jr. (Ed.). Japanese schooling: Patterns of socialization, equality, and political control (pp. 73-84). University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Jandt, F. E. (1998). Intercultural communication: An introduction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Jandt, F. E. (2103). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Japan Student Services Organization (2015). International students in Japan 2015. Retrieved from http://www.jasso.go.jp/en/about/statistics/intl_student/data2015.html
Kang, C., & Lee, S. (2007). Regional ties and discrimination: Political change, economic crisis, and job displacements in South Korea 1997-1999. The Developing Economies, 45, 63-96.
Klyukanov, I. E. (2005). Principles of intercultural communication. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Kobayashi, E., Kerbo, H. R., & Sharp, S. F. (2010). Differences in individualistic and collectivistic tendencies among college students in Japan and the United States. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 51, 59-84.
LaFever, M. (2008). Communication for public decision-making in a negative historical context: Building intercultural relationships in the British Columbia treaty process. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 1, 158-180.
Lee, C. Y. (2012). Korean culture and its influence on business practice in South Korea. Journal of International Management Studies, 7, 184-191.
Lee, J. H. (2016). Impact of school psychological environment variables on happiness of Korean youths. Japanese Psychological Research, 58, 310-319.
Lee, T, L., & Fiske, S, T. (2006). Not an outgroup, not yet an ingroup: Immigrants in the stereotype content model. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 751-768.
Li, Han. Z. (2001). Culture, gender and self-close-other(s) connectedness in Canadian and Chinese samples. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 93-104.
Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (2006). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Marques, J. M., Robalo, E. M., & Rocha, S. A. (1992). Ingroup bias and the ‘black sheep’ effect: Assessing the impact of social identification and perceived variability on group judgements. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 331-352.
Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2011). Experiencing intercultural communication: An introduction (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Matsumoto, D., Kudoh, T., & Takeuchi, S. (1996). Changing patterns of individualism and collectivism in the United States and Japan. Culture & Psychology, 2, 77-107.
McCann, R. M., Honeycutt, J. M., & Keaton, S. A. (2010). Toward greater specificity in cultural value analyses: The interplay of intrapersonal communication affect and cultural values in Japan, Thailand, and the United States. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 39, 157-172.
Monette, D. R., Sullivan, T. J., & DeJong, C. R. (1986). Applied social research: Tool for the human services. Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Mummendey, A., & Wenzel, M. (1999). Social discrimination and tolerance in intergroup relations: Reactions to intergroup difference. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 158-174.
Nawata, K., & Yamaguchi, H. (2014). Perceived group identity of outgroup members and anticipated rejection: People think that strongly identified group members reject non-group members. Japanese Psychological Research, 56, 297-308.
Neuliep, J. W. (2000). Intercultural communication: A contextual approach. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Neuliep, J. W. (2015). Intercultural communication: A contextual approach (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Okabe, R. (1983). Cultural assumptions of East and West: Japan and the U.S. International and Intercultural Communication Annual, 7, 21-44.
Oswald, D. L., & Clark, E. M. (2003). Best friends forever?: High school best friendships and the transition to college. Personal Relationships, 10, 187-196.
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3-72.
Persell, C. H. (1984). Understanding society: An introduction to sociology. New York: Harper & Row.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751-783.
Power, T. G., Kobayashi-Winata, H., & Kelley, M. (1992). Childrearing patterns in Japan and the United States: A cluster analytic study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15, 185-205.
Price, G. (2017). U.S. Military presence in Asia: Troops stationed in Japan, South Korea and beyond. Retrieved from http://www.newsweek.com/us-military-japan-north-korea-asia-590278
Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., McDaniel, E. R., & Roy, C. S. (2017). Communication between cultures (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Schaefer, R. T. (1998). Racial and ethnic groups (7th ed.). New York, NY: Longman.
Schneider, B. H. (2000). Friends and enemies: Peer relations in childhood. London: Arnold.
Schneider, B. H., Lee, M. D, & Alvarez-Valdivia, I. (2012). Adolescent friendship bonds in cultures of connectedness. In B. Laursen & W. A. Collins (Eds.). Relationship pathways: From adolescence to young adulthood. (pp. 113-134). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Shinkle, G. A. (2012). Organizational Aspirations, reference points, and goals: Building on the past and aiming for the future. Journal of Management, 38, 415-455.
Sorrells, K. (2013). Intercultural communication: Globalization and social justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stacks, D. W., & Hocking J. E. (1999). Communication research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Longman.
Summer, W. G. (1906). Folkways. Boston, MA: Ginn.
Ting-Toomey, S., & Chung, L. C. (2012). Understanding intercultural communication (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Tinsley, C. H. & Brett, J. M. (2001). Managing workplace conflict in the United States and Hong Kong. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 85, 360-381.
Triandis, H. C. (1991). Cross-cultural differences in assertiveness/competition vs. group loyalty/cooperation. In R. A. Hinde & J. Groebel (Eds.), Cooperation and prosocial behavior (pp. 78-88). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Tirandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. J., Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relatioships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 323-338.
Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 118-128.
Triandis, H. C., McCusker, C., Betancourt, H., Iwao, S., Leung, K., Salazar, J. M., Setiadi, B., Sinha, J. B. P., Touzard, H., & Zaleski, Z. (1993). An etic-emic analysis of individualism and collecivism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 366-383.
Turner, J. C., & Giles, H. (1981). Introduction: The social psychology of intergroup behavior. In J. C. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup behavior (pp. 66-101). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
United States Census Bureau (2017a). Foreign trade: Trade in goods with Korea, South. https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5800.html
United States Census Bureau (2017b). Foreign trade: Trade in goods with Japan. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5880.html
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. (2016). Student and exchange visitor program by the numbers. Washington, DC: ICE. Retrieved from https://www.ice.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Report/2016/sevis-bythenumbers-0416.pdf
Vandello, J. A. & Cohen, D. (1999). Patterns of individualism and collectivism across the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 279-292.
Weisel, A. & Bӧhm, R. (2015). “Ingroup love” and “outgroup hate” intergroup conflict between natural groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 60, 110-120.
White, I. (2001). Sibling relationships over the life course: A panel analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 555-568.
Wolf, R. (2013). Management relations in the work culture in Japan as compared to that of the West. Innovative Journal of Business and Management, 2, 116-122.
Yee, J. (2000). The social networks of Koreans. Korea Journal, 40, 325-352.
Yi, J. (2001). Child-rearing and child development practices: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of the Speech and Theatre Association of Missouri, 31, 24-47.
Yum, J. O. (1987). The practice of uye-ri in interpersonal relationships. In D. L. Kincaid (Ed.), Communication theory: Eastern and Western perspectives (pp. 87-100). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Yum, J. O. (2000). The impact of Confucianism on interpersonal relationships and communication patterns in East Asia. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (9th ed., pp. 63-73). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Authors
Copyright (c) 2019 Jung-Soo Yi

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This journal provides immediate and free open access to all its content and is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This means readers are permitted to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author, as long as proper attribution is given. This policy is consistent with the Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) definition of open access.
Article Details
How to Cite
Most read articles by the same author(s)
- Jung-Soo Yi, Revisiting Hofstede’s Uncertainty-Avoidance Dimension: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Organizational Employees in Four Countries , Journal of Intercultural Communication: Vol. 21 No. 1 (2021)
- Jung-Soo Yi, Revisiting Individualism-Collectivism A Cross-Cultural Comparison among College Students in Four Countries , Journal of Intercultural Communication: Vol. 18 No. 2 (2018)
- Jung-Soo Yi, Re-Examining The Validity of Hofstede's Power Distance Dimension: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Organizational Employees In Four Countries , Journal of Intercultural Communication: Vol. 26 No. 1 (2026)