"He Will Take Care of our Security Better than Her" Examining Socio-Cultural Conceptions of Gender in Israeli and American Press Coverage of Female Candidates for Top Political Positions, 2008-2009

Gilad Greenwald (1) , Sam Lehman-Wilzig (2)
1. School of Communication Bar Ilan University
2. School of Communication Bar-Ilan University

Abstract

This study argues that distinct differences between two cultures and two political campaigns, may result in different press coverage of women running for leadership positions. To demonstrate this, we undertook a content analysis of Tzipi Livni’s and Hillary Clinton's 2008-2009 campaigns in four Israeli and American popular and elite newspapers, examining coverage of nine gender-oriented media frameworks. We found that while the press in both countries strongly emphasized gender-oriented elements in covering the two leaders, the Israeli press was significantly more gender-biased, particularly due to military and religious influences. Additionally, the popular newspapers in both countries were more gender-biased than the elite newspapers, especially in "sensationally" highlighting candidates' sexuality and appearance.

Full text article

Generated from XML file

References

Acker, J. (1990). A theory of gendered organizations. In: Gender and society. California: Sage Publications. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Anagondahalli, D. (2012). Prior reputation and the transition from image repair to image makeover: The case of Hosni Mubarak. Public relations review, 39,241-244. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Banwart, M.C. (2010). Gender and candidate communication. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Banwart, M.C. & Mckinney, M.S. (2005). A gendered influence in campaign debates? Analysis of mixed-gender United States senate and gubernatorial debates. Communication studies, 56,73-353. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Baum, M.A. & Jamison, A. (2011). Soft news and the four Oprah effects. In: R.Y. Shapiro & L.R. Jacobs (Eds.). The oxford handbook of American public opinion and the media (pp. 121-137). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Google Scholar | WorldCat

BDI-COFACE (2014). The rate of female CEOs in Israel: only 9%. Retrieved in: 22/05/2016, from: http://saloona.co.il/blog/שיעור-המנכליות-9-בלבד. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Beaujon, A. (2012). New York Times passes USA Today in daily circulation. Retrieved in: 20/08/2014, from: http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/211994/new-york-times-passes-usa-today-in-daily-circulation. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Bloch-Elkon, Y. & Lehman-Wilzing, S. (2007). Media functioning during a violent international crisis: Differences between elite and popular press coverage of American policy in Bosnia (1992-1995). In: H. Nossek et al (Eds.). Media and political violence (pp. 119-142). New Jersey: Hampton. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Bordo, S. (1998). Sexual harassment is about bullying, not sex. In: The chronicle of higher education (p. B6). Google Scholar | WorldCat

Braden, M. (1996). Women, politicians and the media. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Campus, D. (2013). Women political leaders and the media. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Carey, J. (1989). A cultural approach to communications. In: Communication as culture: Essay on media and society (pp. 13-36). London: Routledge. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Carroll, S.J. & Zerilli, L.G. (1993). Feminist challenges for political science. In: A.W. Finifter (Ed.). Political science: The state of discipline II (pp. 55-76). Washington, D.C.: The American Political Science Association. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Cohen-Avigdor, N. (2000). Female politicians compared to male politicians in the Israeli women's journalism: Media Framing in times of political campaigns, 1959, 1977, 1996. Patuakh, 4, 45-75. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Council for higher education (2015). Representation and promotion of women in the academy. Jerusalem: Ministry of science, technology and space. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Dietz, M.G. (2003). Current controversies in feminist theory. Annual review of political science, 6, 399-431. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Dialogue (2013). Only 7% of Israelis think a female prime minister can deal with the Iranian threat. Retrieved in: 19/05/2016, from: http://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=1000811165 [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Evans, P.C. (2003). If only I were thin like her, maybe I could be happy like her. Psychology of women quarterly, 27(3), 209-214. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Falk, E. (2010). Women for president: Media bias in nine campaigns. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Ferree, M.M. (2006). Angela Merkel: What does it mean to run as a woman?. German politics & society, 24(1), 93-107. Google Scholar | WorldCat

First, A. (2002). All women should cry: The presentation of women in foreign news. Communications, 27(1), 35-61. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Gallup (2015). In U.S., socialist presidential candidates least appealing. Retrieved in: 19/05/2016, from: http://www.gallup.com/poll/183713/socialist-presidential-candidates-least-appealing.aspx Google Scholar | WorldCat

Gans, H.J. (2010). News and the news media in the digital age: Implications for democracy. Daedalus, 39(2), 8-17. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Gedalya, E., Herzog, H. & Shamir, M. (2011). Tzip(p)ing through the elections: Gender in the 2009 elections. In: A. Arian & M. Shamir (Eds.). The elections in Israel 2009 (pp. 165-195). London: Transaction. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Gerbner, G. (1972). Violence in television drama: Trends and symbolic functions. Television and social behavior, 1, 28-187. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Gerbner, G. & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of communication, 26(2), 173-199. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Golan, G. & Herman, T. (2004). Parliamentary representation of women: The Israeli case. In: M. Tremblay (Ed.). Women and parliaments: An international study (pp. 251-275). Montreal: Remue-ménage Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Goodyear-Grant, E. (2013). Media coverage and electoral politics in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Halevi, S. (2012). Damned if you do, damned if you don't? Tzipi Livni and the debate on 'feminine' leadership in the Israeli press. Feminist media studies, 12(2), 195-213. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Han, C. W. (2007). Geisha of a different kind: Race and sexuality in gaysian America. New York: New York University Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Heldman, C., Carroll, S.J. & Olson, S. (2005). She brought only a skirt: Print media coverage of Elizabeth Dole's bid for the republican presidential nomination, Political communication, 22(2), 35-315. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Heldman, C., Oliver, S. & Conroy, M. (2009). From Ferrero to Palin: Sexism in media coverage of vice presidential candidates. Paper presented at the American Political Science Association. Toronto, Canada, 3-6 September. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Herman, T. & Kurtz, G. (1995). Prospects for democratizing foreign policymaking: The gradual empowerment of Israeli women. Middle East journal, 16(1), 447-466. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Herzog, H. (1994). Realistic women: Women in local politics in Israel. Jerusalem: Jerusalem institution for the study of Israel. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Herzog, H. (1999). Gendering politics: Women in Israel. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Horowitz, D. & Lissak, M. (1990). Troubles in utopia: The overburdened polity of Israel. Tel Aviv: Am Oved Publishers. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Ingham, H. (2011). Job creation and labor market flexibility: Miracle or mirage on the Polish labor market. Industrial relations journal, 42, 339-357. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Inter-Parliamentary Union (1997). Democracy still in the making: A world comparative survey. Series reports and documents. Geneva: Inter-Parliamentary Union Google Scholar | WorldCat

Izraeli, D. (1999). Sex, gender, politics: Women in Israel. Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Jerby, I. (1996). The double price: Women status and military service in Israel. Tel Aviv: Ramot [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Kacen, J.J. (2000). Girl power and boy nature: The past, present and paradisal future of consumer gender identity. Marketingintelligence and planning, 18(6), 345-355. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Kahn, K.F. (1991). Women candidates in the news: An examination of gender differences in U.S. senate campaign coverage. Public opinionquarterly, 55(2), 180-199. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Kahn, K.F. (1992). Does being male help? An investigation of the effects of candidate gender. The Journal of politics, 54(2), 497-517. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Kahn, K.F. (1994). The distorted mirror: Press coverage of women candidates for statewide office. The Journal of politics, 56(1), 154-173. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Kittilson, M.C. & Fridkin, K. (2008). Gender, candidates’ portrayals and elections campaigns: A comparative perspective. Politics & gender, 4(3), 371-392. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Knesset homepage (2016). All past and present members of the Knesset. Retrieved in: 29/04/2016, from: https://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mkdetails_eng.asp. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Krolokke, C. & Sorensen, A.S. (2006). Three waves of feminism: From suffragettes to 'grrls. In: Gender communication theories & analyses: From silence to performance (pp. 1-25). California: SAGE publications. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Lachover, E. (2015). Sighs of change in media representation of women in Israeli politics: Leading and peripheral women contenders. Journalism, 1(18), 1-18. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Lawrence, R.G. & Rose, M. (2009). Hillary Clinton's race for the white house: Gender and the media on the campaign trail. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Lehman-Wilzig, S. & Seletzky, M. (2010). Hard news, soft news, 'general' news: The necessity and utility of an intermediate classification. Journalism, 11(1), 56-97. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Lemish, D. & Drob, G. (2002). All the time his wife: Portrayals of first ladies in the Israeli press. Parliamentary affairs, 55(1), 129-142. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Liran-Alper, D. (2009). A president in the headlines: President Dalia Itzik as reflected in the Israeli media. In: H. Zubeida & D. Mekelberg (Eds.). Sixty years of Israeli democracy: Reality and Vision (pp. 269-287). Tel Aviv-Yaffo: The Israeli political science association. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Lorber, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender. New Haven: Yale University Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

McQuail, D. (2010). Framing. In: McQuail’s mass communication theory (pp. 511-512). London: Sage Publications. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Meeks, L. (2012). Women candidates for executive political offices and news coverage. Journal of communication, 62, 175-193. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Meeks, L. (2013). All the gender that's fit to print: How the New York Times covered Hillary Clinton and Sarah Palin in 2008. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 90(3), 520-539. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Mo, C.H. (2015). The consequences of explicit and implicit gender attitudes and Candidates' quality in the calculations of voters. Political behavior, 37(2), 357-395. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Molotch, H. & Lester, M. (1974). News as purposive behavior. American sociological review, 39, 101-112. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Nielsen NetView (2010). Did you know? Facts about the New York Times. Retrieved in : 20/08/2015, from: http://www.webcitation.org/5zE3Q8zJj. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Pew Research Center (2015). Women and leadership. Retrieved in: 22/05/2015, from: http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/01/14/women-and-leadership/. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Raicheva-Stover, M. and Ibroscheva, E. (2014). Women in politics and media: Perspectives from nations in transition. London: Bloomsbury. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Rivak, H. (2010). TGI: "Israel Hayom is getting stronger, passing Yedioth Ahronoth". Retrieved in: 20/08/2015, from: http://b.walla.co.il/?w=/3050/1715485. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Ross, K. (2002). Women's place in 'male' space: Gender and effect in parliamentary contexts. Parliamentary affairs, 55(1), 189-201. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Rudman, L.A. & Kilianski, S.E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes towards female authority. Personality and social psychological bulletin, 26(11), 1315-1328. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Samooha, S. (2000). Israel's regime: Civil democracy, non-democracy or ethnic democracy, Israel sociology, B(2), 565-630. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Schneider, M.C. & Bos, A.L. (2014). Measuring stereotypes of female politicians. Political psychology, 35(2), 245-267. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Shapira, A., Kenig, O., Friedberg, C. & Itzkovitch-Malka, R. (2013). The representation of women in Israeli politics: A comparative perspective. Jerusalem: The Israeli democracy institute. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Shenkar-Shreck, D. (2000). Media coverage and political marketing in the primaries age. Patuakh, 4, 100-126. [Hebrew]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Shoemaker, P.J. (1985). All the deviance that's fit to print: Newsworthiness and social change. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas at Austin. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Tartaglia, S. & Rollero, C. (2015). Gender stereotyping in newspaper advertisements: A cross-cultural study. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 46(8), 1103-1109. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Trimble, L. (2006). When do women count? Substantive representation of women in Canadian legislatures. In: M. Sawer, M. Trembaly & L. Trimble (Eds.). Representing women in parliament (pp. 120-133). New York: Routledge. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Trimble, L. & Gerrits, B. (2013). Is it personal? Gendered mediation in newspaper coverage of Canadian national party leadership contests. The international journal of press-politics, 18, 462-481. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Woolstonecraft, M. (1792). A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with Strictures on Moral and Political Subjects. London: Joseph Johnson. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Worth, A. & Augoustions, M. (2015). Playing the gender card: Media representation of Julia Gillard's sexism and misogyny speed. Feminism and psychology, 26(1), 52-72. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Zhang, E. & Benoit, W.L. (2009). Former minister Zhang's discourse on SARS: Government's image restoration or destruction?. Public relations review, 35, 240-246. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Authors

Gilad Greenwald
gilad.greenwald@biu.ac.il (Primary Contact)
Sam Lehman-Wilzig
Author Biographies

Gilad Greenwald

Gilad Greenwald is a PhD Candidate and Teaching Associate at Bar-Ilan University, Israel, School of Communication. He is interested in cultural, historical and political aspects, as they are reflected in female leaders' media framing during election campaigns. For the past four years, he lectures in the fields of Mass Communication and International Relations.

Sam Lehman-Wilzig

Prof. Sam Lehman-Wilzig served as Chairman of Bar-Ilan University’s Department of Political Studies (2004-07) and School of Communication (2014-16). His specialty areas of research are New Media; Political Communication; and Gender in Journalism.

Greenwald, G., & Lehman-Wilzig, S. (2017). "He Will Take Care of our Security Better than Her" Examining Socio-Cultural Conceptions of Gender in Israeli and American Press Coverage of Female Candidates for Top Political Positions, 2008-2009. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 17(3), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v17i3.744

Article Details

How to Cite

Greenwald, G., & Lehman-Wilzig, S. (2017). "He Will Take Care of our Security Better than Her" Examining Socio-Cultural Conceptions of Gender in Israeli and American Press Coverage of Female Candidates for Top Political Positions, 2008-2009. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 17(3), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v17i3.744