Do media matter? A social construction model of stereotypes of foreigner
Abstract
In an attempt to build on and make more complete existing models of stereotype formation, which have largely been cognitive in nature, this paper proposes a social construction model of stereotypes of foreigners, which includes a number of social factors, and in particular, the media, where media is defined as a complex variable composed of several exposure, nature of sources, content, and perceived effect.
Full text article
References
Aboud, F. (1988). Children and prejudice. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell.
Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper & Row.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Altmeyer, B. (1988). Enemies of freedom: Understanding right-wing authoritarianism. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bar-Tal, D. (1997). Formation and change of ethnic and national stereotypes: An integrative model. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21, 4, 491-523.
Bar-Tal, D., Raviv, A., Raviv, A., & Brosch, M. (1991). Perceptions of epistemic authority and attribution of knowledge and age. European Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 477-492.
Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1967). The social construction of reality. London: Allen/Penguin Press.
Boulding, K. (1956). The image. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Chaffee, S. H., & Kanihan, S. F. (1997). Learning about politics from the mass media. Political Communication, 14, 421-430.
Chomsky, N. (1985). Turning the tide. Boston: South End.
Dyer, R. (1979). The role of stereotypes. In A. Kuper & J. Kuper (Eds.), Images of alcoholism. London: BFI.
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Eagly, A. H., & Kite, M. E. (1987). Are stereotypes of nationalities applied to both women and men? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 451-462.
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of men and women into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735-754.
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1991). Explaining sex differences in social behavior: A meta-analytic perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 306-315.
Fishman, M. (1980). Manufacturing the news. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1989). Category-based and individuating processes as a function of information and motivation: Evidence from our laboratory. In D. Bar-Tal, C. F. Graumann, A. W. Kruglanski, & W. Stroebe (Eds.), Stereotyping and prejudice (pp. 83-103). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Gilbert, G. M. (1951). Stereotypes persistence and change among college students. Journal or Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 245-254.
Gorham, B. W. (1999). Stereotypes in the media: So what? The Howard Journal of Communication, 10, 229-247.
Graber, D. (1988). How people tame the information tide. New York: Longman.
Hamilton, D. L. (Ed.) (198 l). Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Herrmann, R., & Fischerkeller, M. P. (1995). Beyond the enemy image and spiral model: Cognitive strategic research after the Cold War. International Communication, 49, 3, 415-450.
Hollander, B. A. (1997). Television news exposure and foreign affairs knowledge: A six-nation analysis, Gazette, 59, 2, 151-161.
Ichheiser, G. (1949). Misunderstanding in human relations. American Journal of Sociology, 55, 2-34.
Karlins, M., Coffman, T. L., & Walters, G. (1969). On the fading of social stereotypes: Studies in three generations of college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 1-16.
Katz, D., & Braly, K. W. (1933). Racial stereotypes in five hundred college students. Journal or Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 280-290.
Katz, D., & Braly, K. W. (1935). Racial prejudice and racial stereotypes. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 30, 175-93.
Lester, P. M. (Ed.). (1996). Images that injure: Pictorial stereotypes in the media. London: Praeger.
LeVine, R. A., & Campbell, D. T. (1972). Ethnocentrism: Theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes and group behavior. New York: Wiley.
Leyens, J. P., Yzerbyt, V., & Schardon, G. (1994). Stereotypes and social cognition. London: Sage Publications.
Lippmann, W. (1965). Public opinion. New York: Macmillan. (the original was published in 1922).
Madon, S., Guyll, M., Aboufadel, K., Montiel, E., Smith. A., Palumbo, P., & Jussim. P. (2001). Ethnic and national stereotypes: The Princeton trilogy revisited and revised. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 8, 996-1010.
McCarty, C., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Spears, R. (2002). Stereotypes as explanations: The formation of meaningful beliefs about social groups. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mehrabian, A. (1996). Relations among political attitudes, personality, and psychopathology assessed with new measures of libertarianism and conservatism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 18, 4, 469-491.
O’Driscoll, M., Haque, A., & Oshako, T. (1983). Effects of contact and perceived attitude differences on social distance among Australian, Japanese and Pakistani students. Journal of Social Psychology, 120, 163-168.
Oakes, P. J., Haslam, A. S., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Parenti, M. (1993). Inventing reality: The politics of the news media. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Pickering, M. (1995). The politics and psychology of stereotyping. Media, Culture & Society, 17, 691-700.
Rajeski, D. W. (1990). Attitudes: Second Edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
Ray, J. (1983). A scale to measure conservatism of American public opinion. Journal of Social Psychology, 119, 293-294.
Reigrotski, E., & Anderson, N. (1957). National stereotypes and foreign contacts. Public Opinion Quarterly, 23, 515-528.
Sahin, H., Davis, D. K., & Robinson, J. P. (1982). Television as a source for international news: What gets across and what doesn’t? In W. C. Adams (Ed.), Television coverage of international affairs (pp. 229-243). Nordwood, NJ: Ablex.
Seiter, E. (1986). Stereotypes and the media. Journal of Communication, 2, 14-26.
Semetko, H.A., Brizinski, H. B., Weaver, D., & Willnat, L. (1992). TV news and U.S. public opinion about foreign countries. The impact of exposure and attention. The International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 4, 18-36.
Sherif, M. (1966). In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Sherif, M. (1967). Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge.
Shoemaker, P. J., & Reese, S. D. (1996). Mediating the message (2nd ed). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Silverstein, B. (1989). Enemy images: the psychology of U.S. attitudes and cognitions regarding the Soviet Union. American Psychologist, 44, 6, 903-913.
Silverstein, B., & Flamenbaum, C. (1989). Biases in the perception and cognition of the actions of enemies. Journal of Social Issues, 45, 2, 33-51.
Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology,(3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599-658). New York: Random House.
Stephan, W. G., Ageyev, V., Shrider, L. C., Stephan, C. W., & Abalakina, M. (1994). On the relationship between stereotypes and prejudice: An international study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 3, 277-284.
Stephan. W. G., & Rosenfield, D. (1978). The effect of desegregation on race relations and self-esteem. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 670-679.
Stephan. W. G., & Rosenfield, D. (1979). Black self-rejection: Another look. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 708-716.
Tajfel, H. (1969). Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of’Socia1 Issues, 25, 79-97.
Tajfel, H. (1978a) The social psychology of minorities (Report No. 38). London, UK: Minority Rights Group.
Tajfel. H. (Ed.). (1978b). Differentiation between social groups. London: Academic Press.
Wandysz, A. (1995). Western stereotypes and images of Central Europeans. In Gerrits, A. & Adler, N. (Eds.), Vampires unstaked: National images, stereotypes and myths in East Central Europe (pp. 46-67). Oxford: North-Holland.
White, R. K. (1984). Fearful warriors: A psychological profile of U.S.-Soviet relations. New York: Free Press.
Wolfe, A. (1983). The irony of anti-communism: Ideology and interest in post-war American foreign policy. In R. Miliband, J. Saville, & M. Liebman (Eds.), The uses of anti-communism (pp. 214-229). London: Merlin Press.
Authors
Copyright (c) 2008 Elza Ibroscheva, Jyotika Ramaprasad

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This journal provides immediate and free open access to all its content and is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This means readers are permitted to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author, as long as proper attribution is given. This policy is consistent with the Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) definition of open access.